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Abstract Ideas—The ideas of qualities apart from objects of which these qualities are characteristic. For example, the idea of blueness apart from any particular thing which is blue, of courage apart from any particular person who is brave, of height apart from anything which is high, and of height in its sense of great value; all these are abstract ideas. Abstract ideas are difficult to the children of any time and to the people of the childhood of the race. Thus, the need for personifications in myths and in the ideas of young children. Physiologically, the abstract idea is the consciousness associated with that activity of the neurons of the overflow areas by means of which the elements of experiences are dissociated, and similar elements recombined. Thus it is evident that single experiences are insufficient for the formation of the abstract idea, but that for each abstraction a number of experiences having similar characteristics are essential. The lower the liminal value of the neurons of the overflow areas, the higher their functional development, the greater their power of dissociating and recombining the elements of experiences, and the greater the power of the individual to form abstractions. Admiration (literally, to wonder at: later, to wonder at with pleasure)—The recognition of new and valuable factors in other persons or things, the sense of increasing environment. Admiration of other persons and of the deeds of others implies the recognition of valuable factors in the deeds or the characters of these persons. Admiration of grand scenery, of wonderful objects, implies a sense of increasing environment. Physiologically, admiration is the consciousness associated with the activity of the intermediate and motor areas in answer to the stimulation of neuron systems newly active or newly related in activity, plus the occurrence of certain somatic changes, such as the long breath, the slight contractions of the large muscles, etc. Usually, admiration is associated with factors which make for the good of the race, but this is not essential. Admiration must include the slight motor activity producing the tension of the larger muscles of the body, the recognition of new factors or of known factors newly combined, and must give the consciousness of increased environment. Affection (literally, the state of being affected)—The consciousness of an instinctive or emotional reaction to any environmental change; sometimes limited to the instinctive or emotional reaction to pleasant environmental factors. Alexia—The loss of the power of coordinating the muscles employed in writing. Motor alexia has been found to be associated with lesions involving the foot of the second frontal gyrus of the left hemisphere. Alternating Personality—An abnormal condition, in which the patient loses his sense of personality, then becomes conscious of himself again, but as another person. After a second shock he may recover the first personality, or he may assume another. The number of variations possible is indefinite. The variations seem to affect only his ideas of his own place in the midst of things; he usually retains his ideas of the relationships of environmental factors. He is apt to lose the functions of the more highly developed neurons, as is to be expected, since the whole affair is abnormal. These cases have not been well studied from the physiological standpoint, but the series of occurrences is probably as follows: The patient always suffers some abnormal nervous conditions, such as shock, overwork, poisoning, or some other thing capable of affecting the cortical neurons. The neurons of the left anterior intermediate area become paralyzed, probably together with certain neuron systems relating these neurons to other neurons of the cortex. Thus, the ideas of personality are lost. This appears to be associated with a loss of consciousness for a time, probably only a short time. The loss of function on the part of the neurons of the anterior intermediate area is associated with a loss of memories of things pertaining to one’s self. There is usually retained all powers of language, of counting money, attending to business affairs more or less acutely, and the ordinary affairs of life, except as these are associated with personal life. The new personality is thus almost forced into lines different from the old. Later there may be other shocks, from which the new personality may be paralyzed, and the older neuron systems, having become rested, or having recovered from the first shock, may regain functional activity. The first personality may then recur. Or, the second shock may simply leave the same condition as the first, and a third personality may follow the assumption of function of new neuron groups of the anterior intermediate area. The number of times the series of events may recur is indefinite, and the number of personalities which may appear is also indefinite. Altruism (literally, the sense of others)—(a) The feelings for the welfare of others; (b) the governing of one’s own life with regard to the best good of the race, rather than of the individual. Physiologically, altruism is: (a) the consciousness associated with the normal relationship between the anterior and the posterior intermediate areas, by means of which the essential unity of the race is perceived; (b) the control of the primary and overflow motor areas by impulses properly related from the anterior and the posterior intermediate areas, by means of which the activities of the individual are related to the conditions of the race as a whole, rather than to the condition of the individual. Anger—The consciousness of motor reactions governed in part by ganglionar centers and in part by the motor cortex, plus the consciousness of the visceral phenomena of increased pulse, increased blood pressure, increased muscular tone, changed circulation, usually with contraction of the pilo-motors, contraction of the flexors of the hands and fingers, retraction of the lips and contraction of the muscles of the lower jaw. The environmental changes which initiated the reaction may or may not be a content of consciousness. Antagonism (literally, to struggle against)—A sense of dislike or antipathy toward persons or things found or felt to be detrimental. Voluntary antagonism is the result of experience, and is conscious, and in part, at least, justifiable on the part of the individual. Involuntary antagonism is felt, but is not recognized as justifiable; it is usually termed “instinctive.” Physiologically, voluntary antagonism is the consciousness of the activity of the primary or overflow motor areas, in answer to impulses from the sensory overflow or the intermediate areas, as these are stimulated by persons or things detrimental to the good of the individual or the race. Involuntary antagonism is the consciousness of increased respiration, increased pulse, slight nausea, slight erection of the hairs, increased tension of the mandibular muscles, and other visceral and somatic changes due to the activity of the ganglionar centers in the presence of persons or things displaying characteristics which have been detrimental in racial experience. Aphasia—The loss of the power of coordinating the muscles used in speech. Motor aphasia is found associated with lesions involving the foot of the third frontal gyrus of the left hemisphere; sensory aphasia is associated with lesions involving the posterior portions of the first or second temporal gyri, or to lesions involving the neuron systems relating these areas. Apperception—The appreciation of objects or ideas in their entire significance, as they are related to all other objects or ideas, including the mind, which is thus considering them. Physiologically, apperception is the consciousness associated with the activities of the intermediate areas, both anterior and posterior, as these are affected by the activities of the sensory overflow areas. It is evident that a very nice balancing of the impulses to and from the different areas is required in order that these different activities may be coordinated; therefore apperception is a function only of neurons well developed and well related in development and function. Attention (literally, to stretch toward)—The
act of devoting the mental energies to any object or idea, either voluntarily
or involuntarily. Voluntarily, attention is given to those objects or ideas
which are considered valuable, apart from their power to awaken interest
in themselves. Involuntary attention is that which is compelled by sensory
stimulation. Voluntary attention is also called active, since it is supposed
to imply a mental effort; involuntary attention is called passive, since
it is not supposed to imply any mental energy.
Autochthonous Ideas—Ideas which arise apparently without cause, and are of great force in arousing attention. Probably they are always associated with abnormal conditions of the cortical neurons, though very slightly abnormal conditions, such as fatigue or loss of sleep, may be responsible for a temporary appearance of autochthonous ideas. Physiologically, autochthonous ideas are the conscious states associated with the activity of certain neuron groups which have an abnormally low liminal value, and are thus made active in the presence of stimuli usually not efficient, such as variations in the blood pressure, the presence of slight irritants, etc., or of impulses from other parts of the cortex, not usually associated in function with the abnormal neuron systems. Beauty, Sense of—The appreciation of that
which is admirable in the esthetic sense, and afterward of abstract ideas.
Physiologically, the sense of beauty depends, first, upon the activity
of the overflow areas in which the primary sensations are interpreted as
present, as affecting the activities of the ganglionar centers in such
a manner as to increase the metabolism of the body pleasantly, and to be
associated with no inhibitory impulses from other cortical areas. For example,
a beautiful line is one which carries the eye along with it in curves,
and which is not associated with factors detrimental to the individual
or the race. The curves which are characteristic of the snake are graceful
in themselves, but the associations prevent their being appreciated as
beautiful by many persons. The lines of a bridge may be considered as beautiful
until the fact that the structure is weak lessens the sense of beauty in
those lines. Thus, the lack of inhibitory impulses from other cortical
areas is essential to the sense of beauty as aroused by sensory stimuli.
Benevolence—The habit of giving or doing good to others. The term is usually employed in the sense of giving rather than of sharing. In benevolence there is not necessarily any idea of the unity of the race, such as is essential to altruism. Physiologically, benevolence is a characteristic of the motor activities, as these are affected from the visual and auditory overflow areas. No related activity of the anterior intermediate area is essential, nor is any activity of the ganglionar centers needful to the most perfect benevolence. Wealth may not be materially lessened by benevolence, nor may personal comfort be lessened; thus benevolence differs from altruism, which depends essentially upon the appreciation of the unity of the race, as the anterior and the posterior intermediate areas re associated in coordinated activity. Bravery—The habit of meeting the emergencies of life with courage. Physiologically, bravery is due to the fact that the ganglionar centers are normal in structure and inheritance, and supplied with good blood flowing freely at normal pressure, and also to the fact that no excessive inhibitory impulses are being received from the cortical areas. Persons otherwise brave may become cowardly when the nutrition fails; when the fact that families depend upon their exertions increases the inhibitions; or when the memories die to a series of misfortunes initiate excessive inhibitory impulses. Bravery is the sum of the effects of the physiological condition of the body, in its nutrition, cleansing and circulation, plus the effects of the past history of the individual, plus the hereditary structure of the neuronic systems of the ganglia and the cortex. Choice—The act of deciding between two or more conditions, ideas, or things. Choice is usually considered the act of the mind as apart from the action of the cortical neurons. Physiologically, choice is the consciousness associated with the increased activity of any neuron system, including certain cells of the stratum zonale, when the impulses from any given source overcome the impulses from other sources. The areas concerned in the coordination of the impulses associated with any subjects, between which choice must be made, receive impulses from other cortical areas in which are stored memories relating to the subjects; these memories include many of the past experiences and their interpretation; the elements of past experiences, as these have been dissociated and recombined into new complexes, by means of which the future may be anticipated; memories from the motor overflow area may add previous determinations relating to the subjects under consideration; and many other factors relative to the matter may be added to the complex streams of nerve impulses passing to and from the different cortical areas. The activity of the inhibitory neurons prevents premature stimulation of the motor cortex. Finally, some series of nerve impulses is found to attain supremacy. Perhaps impulses from the ganglionar centers exert a deciding influence, then the individual chooses because of certain “feelings:’ perhaps memories, perhaps previous determinations, perhaps anticipations, perhaps fatigue of the neurons concerned in the most important considerations, determine the final choice. In any event, the consciousness associated with the increased activity of the neurons of the primary or overflow motor area is the essential feature of “choice,” and this consciousness is the effect and not the cause of the choice. Cognition—Knowing; knowledge; the state of being in consciousness. Physiologically, the function of certain neurons of the stratum zonale of the cerebral cortex. Conception—The appreciation of anything as present and real; the act of forming concepts. Physiologically, the consciousness associated with the activity of any sensory overflow as this is stimulated by the activity of the neurons of the adjacent primary sense area. Concept—Ideas of the qualities of things. Physiologically, the consciousness associated with the activity of any sensory overflow as this is stimulated by the activity of the neurons of the adjacent primary sense area. Conscience—The sense of doing what is right. Physiologically, the consciousness associated with the activity of the primary or overflow motor area, which is the result of impulses from the posterior and the anterior intermediate areas, with no antagonistic nerve impulses affecting the proposed or actual reaction. The existence of antagonistic impulses causes the phenomenon known as “bad” conscience, or uneasy conscience, in which there is the sense of a lack of satisfaction. In such cases the impulses from the neuron systems controlling different reactions are yet active, and the consciousness associated with this activity is the sense of uneasiness. Consciousness—A “knowing together,” a state of awareness, the knowledge one has of himself in the midst of his environment, and of himself as affected by that environment. Physiologically, consciousness is the result of the activity of certain neurons of the cortical stratum zonale. Consciousness is not localized, but the quality of consciousness at any given time depends upon the metabolism of the cortical neurons, and of their relationships in function, at that particular time. Consciousness must be considered, physiologically, as dependent upon the activity of certain cortical neurons, but not necessarily as their chief function. Conservatism—The tendency of people or nations to continue in the same manner and customs. Conservatism is an efficient preventive of unwise reactions and of unbalanced coordinations, as well as a weight upon progress. Conservatism is to cortical reactions what habit is to somatic reactions. When nerve impulses are transmitted from one neuron group to another, always in the same manner, the liminal value of the neuron groups concerned is lowered, the tendency is for the same reactions to follow the same sensory impulses, and there is the same tendency for the neurons of the intermediate areas to follow the same stimulation when the series of impulses follow the same or related paths frequently. Thus, conservatism is the expression of habit as applied to the cortical reactions of individuals, whether they act alone or whether they are considered as units of families, or nations, or races. Since the individuals who are related usually pass through about the same experiences, the existence of a racial, or national, or family habit, or conservatism is made possible. Courage—The condition of the neurons of the cortex and the ganglionar centers under normal conditions, by means of which environmental changes are most apt to initiate efficient replies. The consciousness of courage is that associated with the activity of cortical centers which are normal, together with the activities of the neuron groups in which memories of past successes are stored. With memories of past failures, the efficiency of the reactions of the normal person is lessened; with the memories of the most pronounced successes, the consciousness of efficiency is decreased by the activity of the cortical neurons under abnormal conditions. The lack of courage is often given as a cause of bodily inefficiency, but this is not just. The condition of the cortical neurons is the cause of the lack of courage, and this may be due to memories of failures, to poor circulation or to poor blood (thus, indirectly, to bony lesions), or to actual muscular weakness, or to the lack of certain internal secretions. The persons who display indications of lack of courage must be treated physically until blood, blood pressure, the relation of the parts of the body to one another, all are normal, and with this educational methods must be employed which lower the liminal value of the neuron systems concerned in the energetic reactions, and especially in the use of the large muscles of the body. Crime—Any act or series of acts which are detrimental to the good of the individual or his race. Crime is the result of imperfect development of the neurons, probably chiefly of the central nervous system. Faulty neuron structure, disease conditions affecting neuron metabolism, and excessive abnormal environmental conditions, may cause criminal tendencies. Certain crimes are made probable by the existence of physical abnormalities, others depend upon environmental conditions. It must be remembered that while all functions of the nervous system are in themselves adapted to good ends, and have become so developed through ages of selection and inheritance, yet the improper relationship between the activities of the different neuron groups, between the cortical and ganglionar centers, and between the different ganglionar centers, the abnormal irritability of certain neuron groups due to excessive sensory stimulation, and the establishment of various abnormal habits, may so injure the functions of the cortical and other centers that the establishment of rational relationships between the individual and his fellows may become practically impossible. The treatment of criminals must, then, be reformatory so long as there is possibility of reformation, then protective, for the sake of persons who are normal. Punishment has no place, save as it may be considered reformatory. The tendency of modern criminologists is to eliminate punitive measures altogether, since their value in reformation seems partially nil. Decision (literally, to cut off; hence, to put a stop to hesitancy)—The act or power of choosing, as if by volition. Physiologically, the consciousness associated with the activity of the motor overflow or the language areas, following the activity of the intermediate areas which have been accompanied by inhibitions. When the decision follows the activity of the sensory overflows, the decision is a hasty one; when it follows the activity of the intermediate areas also, especially if the inhibitions have prevented the stimulation of the motor overflow for sometime, the resulting decision is well judged and fairly wise. Delusion—Unfounded acts of judgment, by means of which persons interpret occurrences either in accordance with some fixed idea, in which case the delusions may be extremely well systematized, or without any fixed idea, in which case one faulty judgment follows another, and the words and deeds of the patient indicate a succession of unwarranted reactions. Physiologically, delusions are based upon abnormal activity of the intermediate areas, either because they are subject to abnormal conditions affecting the integrity of their metabolism, or because the neuron systems relating them to other parts of the cortex are abnormal. The common delusions of persecution, expansiveness and personal greatness are probably associated with abnormal conditions affecting the anterior intermediate area. This is known to be true in a number of cases recorded. Declusions concerning the elements of the environment apart from the personal relationships are not so common, and are found associated with lesions involving the posterior intermediate area, in some cases; in other cases no lesions relating to localized functions are to be found. Determination (literally, to bring to an end; hence, to put an end to hesitancy or reasoning)—The act or power of deciding; the exertion of the power of choice. Physiologically, the consciousness associated with the activity of the overflow and usually also the primary motor areas in answer to the stimuli from the intermediate sensory overflow areas. Determination may also be affected by impulses ultimately derived from the ganglionar centers. While the efficiency of the determination may be due to its effect upon the motor overflow areas, the primary motor areas are usually stimulated at the same time, as is evident in the forceful gripping of the hands or the setting of jaw when urgent determinations are decided upon. The effects produced upon the motor overflow areas bring about the consciousness which is known as “making up one’s mind to do) anything. These stored memories of determinations lower the liminal value of the neuron systems concerned in the reaction determined upon, and, when the circumstances favorable to the reaction occur, the reaction follows as if by habit. Determinations are very efficient both for good and for harm, and are especially urgent factors on the education of children and of the sick. Diachesis—The lack of function on the part of a secondary center because of the destruction or paralysis of a primary center upon which the action of the secondary center depends. Thus, the area of any overflow area must be non-functional upon the destruction of the primary sense area. The motor speech center is non-functional when the auditory speech center is not functional. Dislike—A repugnance to persons or things which are unpleasant, or repellant, or injurious. Conscious dislike is due to recognized causes; “instinctive” dislike occurs from causes which are not recognized. Physiologically, dislike is the consciousness associated with the activity of the primary or overflow motor areas (usually the primary areas) in the actions of withdrawing or antagonism in the presence of factors found harmful in the history of the individual or the race. “Instinctive” dislike, as it is called, is the consciousness of the somatic actions of avoidance or withdrawing due to olfactory stimuli, to slight and usually unrecognized visual or auditory impulses, and to the effect of these stimuli acting upon the ganglionar centers. The sensations from these bodily movements are carried to the cortex, and the consciousness of dislike is, in large part, controlled by these reactions. Dislike may be controlled by the control of these instinctive movements, and it may occur that the volitional control of these movements characteristic of dislike may be the beginning of liking, as is the case in the education of tastes. Dominant Idea—An idea which has abnormally great place in the mental life, an idea which controls in excessive degree the judgments of the patient, and which interferes with his maintaining a normal relationship with his surroundings or his fellows. Physiologically, the dominant idea is associated with an abnormally low liminal value of certain neuron groups, by means of which two effects are produced: first, the normal activities of other areas of the cortex affect these neuron groups abnormally, and, second, the excessive activity of these neuron groups exert an undue effect upon the other cortical areas, particularly the primary and overflow motor areas, and the speech areas. This increased activity of these neuron groups still further lowers their liminal value, and they are thus still more easily stimulated. The normal brain, in which the beginnings of such a condition occurs, finds relief in rest and sleep, and the neurons involved in the abnormal process recover. Under abnormal conditions, as in neurasthenic conditions, the neurons are not permitted to recover their normal tone, and the “fixed idea” becomes an important factor in perpetuating the abnormal condition. Dreams—States of consciousness which occur during sleep or at the time of beginning or ceasing to sleep, in which the elements of past experiences are variously recombined, with the production of complex pictures of new and often absurd types. According to Morton Prince, the relations between dreams and antecedent thoughts are direct and definite. Physiologically, this is necessarily true, provided the thoughts were known. In sleep the liminal value of the cortical neurons is raised until no ordinary stimulation is adequate Under slightly abnormal conditions, circulatory or toxic or nutritive, the liminal value of certain neuron groups is lowered less rapidly than others. The persistent activity of those neuron groups whose liminal value remains low initiate the consciousness which would be associated with their normal activity, and thus the dream is caused. The simultaneous or successive stimulation of neuron groups which are related only because of their being affected by the circulatory conditions, as in delirium, dreams and hysteria, must give rise in consciousness to the ideas which are true n their elements, but false in the recombinations. At the instant of awaking, if certain cortical neurons are first stimulated, these affect the activities of other neuron systems related in function, and thus dreams are produced which are fairly well coordinated and rational. The activity of the intermediate areas may thus be affected, and people may “think things out” in dreams which were not well understood during the daytime No weight can be logically placed upon the coordinations which occur during sleep or under any other abnormal conditions, but these reactions may suggest ideas which, when subjected to the effects of memories and reasoning processes, may be found of a certain value. Duration, Idea of—The sense of the passing of time. This sense is sometimes very acute, so that persons with “the gift” are often able to tell within a few minutes the time by the clock at any hour of the day or night. It may be possible for such people to awaken within a few minutes of any chosen time of day or night. This sense of exact duration is not often found, but some sense of the passing of time is usually present with normal people. The physiological basis for the sense of duration is found in the variations in the stream of consciousness, as this is affected by recurring stimuli from without, and, probably in more efficient manner, by the sensory impulses from the somatic activities, such as the pulse rate, the respirations, the visceral activities, etc., many of which do not affect consciousness directly, but which do affect indirectly the sense of the succession of occurrences, thus, as the result of education, the sense of the passing of time. Education (literally, a “leading out,” from the Socratic idea of developing the mental faculties by use and question)—The process of storing the mind with memories and of teaching the right use of memories and sensations. Physiologically, education is the process of lowering those neuron systems whose coordinated activity makes for the best good of the individual and the race. The storing of memories is the lowering of the liminal value of certain neuron groups of the overflow areas; the formation of habits, the chief factor in the education of young children, is the lowering of the liminal value of the neuron systems controlling the reactions desired; the right use of logic depends upon the normal lowering of the liminal value of the neuron systems associating the different cortical areas, thus of the intermediate areas; the development of an honest conscience depends upon the lowering of the liminal value of the neuron systems associating the motor areas with other parts of the cortex; the development of individual responsibility and of right dealing depends upon the lowering of the liminal value of the anterior intermediate area and the neuron systems which associate these areas with other cortical areas. Bad education is the unbalanced lowering of neuron systems whose activity is not so related as to make for good; there are no neuron systems whose action is essentially bad but only the incoordinated activities are bad. Educational errors are to be corrected by the lowering of the liminal value of those systems left undeveloped by the previous experiences of the individual. Emotion (literally, a moving out; a series of reactions which recur without the control of the voluntary powers; thus, the real self is supposed to vacate the throne, so to speak, and the passions are left in control) –Emotional states are only partly subject to volitional control, especially in poorly-educated persons. Acts performed under the influence of the emotional states are stronger, more directly efficient and better adapted as replies to single environmental factors than are the acts of the type called volitional. These characteristics of the emotional states are due to the fact that such reactions are the result of the ages of inheritance and selection, by means of which certain tendencies have become perpetuated in the structure and the functional relationships of the ganglionar centers. The instincts and emotions, which are governed by these centers, are thus very efficient, very strong, and very well coordinated, in answer to single factors of environment. The emotional reactions fail in wisdom, for the very reason that they answer only one environmental demand, and include no possibility for the existence of modifying factors. The speed, strength and certainty of emotion depends upon this very lack. The value of the emotional states as these are subject to modification by the cortical areas is apparent. The consciousness of an emotion is the consciousness associated with conditions of the body, plus the environmental changes which initiate the emotional reactions, sometimes together with an associated activity of the motor cortex. In the latter case the emotion is in part of the type called voluntary, and the reaction may be either increased in force by the stimulation of the ganglionar centers, by the action of the anterior, or more rarely the posterior immediate area, or may be lessened by the inhibitions from the same areas. These are probably carried by the fronto-pontal, the temporo-pontal or the occipito-pontal tracts. Environmental—The sum of the factors capable of affecting the body of the sensory and organs of any person or thing. The colors cannot be part of the environment of the blind man, for example, though the sunshine may be, since it may make him warm, and may be a factor in adding to his health, as by destruction of bacteria, etc. The jars of loud noises may be part of the environment of the deaf person, though sounds, as such, are not. The things buried are no part of the environment of the person whom they do not in any wise affect. But these things may later become part of the environment of any person who finds and studies them. The farthest stars are part of the environment of the person who is affected by them. Geological ages are part of the present environment of those people who are affected by their history. Not time and not space, but functional relationship is the test of environment. Ethics—Those ideas of right and wrong which are derived from racial and individual experience. Physiologically, the reactions which have been found beneficial in the history of the race and the individual, in their relationships to one another, are associated with the consciousness of propriety; the sum of these reactions is called ethics, and such reactions are termed ethical. Fear—(a) A series of reactions adapted to the preservation of life in the presence of danger; (b) the consciousness of impending danger, and of the reactions occurring in the involuntary efforts to meet that danger. Physiologically, fear is (a) the series of reactions occurring under the influence of the ganglionar centers in defense; these reactions include the erection of the hairs, the contraction of the peripheral blood vessels, the paralysis of muscle groups, etc., and (b) the consciousness of the somatic states as they occur, plus the consciousness aroused by the environmental factor supposed to be dangerous, plus the activities of the overflow and intermediate areas, by means of which the real significance of the environmental factors become known. Thus, fear may be increased by more exact recognition of the dangerous factors, while certain fears become lost by the recognition of the real nature of the causes of the feelings of fear. Fear is the more apt to be present if the person is unable to make adequate reply to environmental demands, as under ill health, while the well-fed, well-educated neuron systems of the cortex and the ganglionar centers are more apt to meet adverse environmental demands by the manifestations of an energetic and efficient attack. Free Will—The power of making choice, either directly, or by choosing to attend rather to one than to another aspect of the subject under consideration. Free will has been the subject of much discussion from the metaphysical as well as the religious standpoint. The Calvinist doctrines on the one hand, and the statement of Huxley (that he would far rather be certain of always making the right reply to the demands of life than to have the most absolute freedom of will), and the teachings of certain philosophers who tinker with words in an attempt to harmonize actual freedom with a whimsical and irresponsible “will power,” all display a remarkable unity of feeling, to the effect that the ultimate good is the essential thing, and that in spite of all the phylosophizing and moralizing there is really a certain doubt concerning this so-called freedom. From the beginning of consciousness, the consciousness associated with the activity of the motor areas of the cortex preceded the actual muscular actions Thus, the consciousness of the activity of these areas has given rise to the idea of causation. Since conscious states of a certain nature invariably precede the movements of the muscles, we naturally conclude that these conscious states cause the movements of the muscles. Actually, both the conscious states and the muscular movements result from the activity of the neurons of the motor cortex. The idea of a specific psychical energy arose in this manner. Its fallacy is apparent. The only lack of freedom which can interfere with the highest mental development are the self-imposed limitations in the nature of excessive inhibitions, of determinations made upon imperfect knowledge, and an excessive consideration of unimportant factors of environment. Fringes of Consciousness—A term used by certain
authors to describe the dim consciousness always present in connection
with any element of vividness. For example, the most vivid consciousness
of music, or of vision, or of pain, is associated with dim ideas of bodily
states in general, of variations in light or sound, of the presence of
other persons, of heat or cold, and of a great number of other environmental
and somatic factors. These ideas, vague and sometimes scarcely recognized,
are said to occupy the “fringe” of consciousness. Physiologically, since
the consciousness is the result of the activity of certain neurons, and
since the vividness of consciousness is the result of the energy of the
metabolic processes occurring, this fringe must be the consciousness associated
with relatively decreased metabolism of the neurons of the external cortical
layers.
Gratitude—The feeling of good will and thankfulness following kindness or service. Physiologically, gratitude is the consciousness of the motor overflow areas as they are stimulated by the impulses from (a) those neuron systems concerned in the consciousness of pleasure or gain, (b) the neurons of the intermediate areas by means of which the source of the elements of good is recognized. Gratitude is thus in part dependent upon the normal condition and development of the intermediate areas and of their relations to the motor areas. Young children and imbeciles are incapable of gratitude in the true sense of the word, though they are capable of recognizing and seeking the sources of benefits conferred, apparently in hope of repeated favors. Gratitude is, like benevolence, a stepping stone to the development of the altruistic attitude, in which the essential unity of the race in needs, possessions and acquirements is recognized. Habit—The tendency to perform certain acts, or to engage in certain mental processes, in a certain manner, because they have been performed in t he same manner, under the same circumstances, often before. The term is properly used in the establishment of certain methods of activity, whether these are established through the nerve cells or not. Unicellular organisms seem to be subject to habits, and the cells of multicellular organisms also seem to display variations in function due to frequent repetition of environmental conditions, which is at least very much like habit, if not identical with it. In its most efficient form, however, habit is a function of neuron groups, by means of which frequent repetition of any stimulation lowers the liminal value, and thus renders those neuron groups more easily stimulated by less efficient stimuli than before. Thus, the tendency to perform any given act in a certain manner is increased each time that act is performed in that manner. Habits cannot be broken directly, but they may be set aside by superseding them by other more efficient habits. Hallucination—A sensation perceived as present, which has no basis in reality. (See Illusion.) Physiologically, hallucinations are due to abnormal conditions of the neurons of the cortical sense areas, by means of which stimuli normally inefficient may cause their activity. The stimulation of any primary sense area by abnormal conditions may give the consciousness which might be caused by such stimulation by normal environmental factors; the stimulation of the sensory overflows may give rise in consciousness to memories which are perceived as if present. The function of the overflow areas in dissociating and recombining the elements of past experiences is probably responsible for the vagaries of hallucinations. Hallucinations may also be due to disturbances of the sense organs themselves, though such disturbances are usually rationally interpreted by the patient. Certain poisons seem to have a selective action upon certain neuron groups, probably because of racial experiences, and thus they may cause hallucinations which are characteristic. Hope—The anticipation of good things for the future. Physiologically, hope is the consciousness associated with the recombination of the dissociated elements of past experiences (including those experiences of others with whom the person may have been associated) into pleasurable complexes, referred to the future. With normal pressure and nutritive conditions, there is a tendency for the normal cortical neurons to be more urgently affected by those elements of past experiences which are pleasurable. Thus, the hopeful attitude is characteristic of the normal activity of normal cortical neurons. The lack of hope, or the anticipation of evil, is indicative of abnormal conditions affecting the cortical neurons. The fallacy of the past has been that the lack of hope is a cause of bodily inefficiency. The lack of hope and the bodily inefficiency are both due to the abnormal activity of the cortical neurons, and these may be due to faulty education, but are more frequently due to fatigue, starvation or poisoning of the brain, or to abnormal pressure conditions. The normal brain in its action gives rise to the consciousness of hope. Hypnotism is the condition of the individual in whom the cells of the stratum zonale are subject to excessive inhibitory impulses. The inhibition is produced usually by means of some methods of exhausting the neurons of a certain area. For example, the subject may be told to look at two small bright lights, placed in a rather awkward position for vision. Constantly being told to attend to the light, the visual cortical neurons become exhausted. No relationships are established with other cortical areas, and perhaps it is not illogical to say that the stream of consciousness has had a dam built across it. By the conditions of the experiment, the passage of impulses from that center to others is inhibited. The use of certain rhythmical movements has the same effect in producing the inhibition of the cells of the stratum zonale. This being accomplished, the impulses sent into the cortical centers are immediately carried to other centers without affecting consciousness at all. The overflow and intermediate areas are employed to a certain extent in some cases, but usually only the simplest coordinations are possible in hypnosis. During this period nerve impulses may be passed through those neuron groups left without the inhibitions, and the neurons so affected act afterward just as they would act if the subject had been awake and obedient to whatever instructions were given him. The injury to the cortical neurons is too great for the method to have any but the most restricted place in therapeutics. Hypochondria (literally, beyond the rib cartilages, from the old idea of the place of the liver in causing the symptom)—A form of melancholia in which the symptoms of terrible diseases are fancied by the patient. The condition is due, first, to any of the causes of melancholia, and the peculiarity is due to a lowered liminal value of the neuron systems concerned in transmitting the sensations of pain and discomfort. Delusions of impending death and disaster may be the result of disordered function of the intermediate areas. Circulatory disturbances are always present; the blood pressure is usually very high, but may be abnormally low. Hysteria—This is usually defined according to Mobius as “a state in which ideas affect the body and produce morbid changes in its functions.” It is characterized by excessive suggestiveness or ideoplasty, and by various disorders of consciousness. From the physiological aspect, hysteria appears a disease of the neurons of the stratum zonale, and probably of certain of the deeper layers of the cortex, by means of which their normal activity is either lessened or increased. The phenomenon of hysteria could be produced by a localized constriction of the cerebral vessels, but at present the possibility of such local interference with the cerebral circulation is not known. It must be remembered that ideas are the result of the activity of the cortical neurons, that the injury to the bodily functions also is the result of the abnormal activity of the cortical neurons, but the ideas themselves do not cause either disease or recovery. The treatment of hysteria must be based upon the establishment of normal nutritive conditions for the cortex, and upon the educational development of the cortical neuron systems. Ideas—A term used in several different meanings. It is properly applied to the thought of anything not present, so far as sensory stimulation is concerned; a memory related to other memories. An effort has been made to apply the term “idea” to psychical facts which are without physiological basis. Since no psychical facts without physiological basis have been recognized, the value of the proposed use of the word is not evident. Physiologically, an idea is the consciousness due to the activity of the overflow areas in relating any memory to other memories. Idea of Reference—A fixed idea of personality; the tendency to refer all environmental variations to personal conditions. The condition is found in patients with delusions of expansiveness and persecution, and in certain hysterical and neurasthenic states. They hear their own names in the distant voices of strangers talking; they fancy that strangers are always noticing and talking abaout them, and they refer the most distant political events to themselves. Physiologically, the condition is probably due to an abnormally low liminal value of the anterior intermediate area (of the left hemisphere), so that the activities of the other cortical areas, especially the primary sense areas, affect the abnormal area in excessive degree and in an incoordinated manner. (See Dominant Idea.) Ideation—The act or process of thinking; the process of successive adjustments of the activities of the primary and overflow sensory areas with the activities of the intermediate areas. Ideoplasty—A term employed by Ochorowicz to express a condition of increased suggestibility. The term refers to the condition in which the thought alone of any functional modification determines such functional modification; for example, the thought of yawning itself produces yawning. The condition is present in an abnormal degree in hysteria, and in certain of the insanities in which echoing and imitation are present. The condition is present in children as they are just going to sleep, and to a less extent in grown people under the same condition. Physiologically, ideoplasty refers to a condition of lowered liminal value of certain neuron groups, so that the stimuli ordinarily inefficient may initiate their activity. When the lack of sleep is present, the neuron systems controlling yawning have a lower liminal value, and the thought of yawning causes the reaction to occur, even in the face of the most urgent inhibitory volitions. Identity—The sense of identity may refer either
to the identity of one’s self or to the identity of things perceived. The
sense of one’s own identity is that idea which normal people have of being
the same person through life; the idea of immortality is associated with
the sense of the impossibility of there being any cessation of identity.
Nothing can be said or thought, under normal conditions, which can make
the possibility of failure of the sense of identity thinkable. Abnormally,
changes in the sense of identity are found. (See Alternating Personality.)
The sense of personal identity is due, physiologically, to the fact of
an unbroken series of neuronic events occurring in the anterior intermediate
area, probably of the left hemisphere.
Illusions—False ideas caused by abnormal interpretations of sensations, due to conditions actually present. For example, a waving line may be seen as a snake, dots may be seen as moving animals, slight noises may be heard as voices, food tasted as poison, and so on. Illusions differ from hallucinations in being based upon actual sensations, whereas hallucinations are not based upon any sensory impulses whatever. It is not always possible to say whether any given false ideas have as their basis an actual sensory impulse or not, since there seems to be no limit to the distortions which the abnormal cortex may impose upon the nerve impulses reaching it. Physiologically, illusions are due to abnormal conditions of the sensory overflow areas, by means of which the primary sensations are improperly coordinated. The false ideas in consciousness are due to the unwarranted activity of the abnormal neurons. Images—The ideas aroused of external objects or of somatic conditions by attention or thought. Physiologically, images are the conscious states produced by the activity of the sensory or motor overflow areas. Imagination—The power of conceiving things which are not, and perhaps never can be, present in fact. Physiologically, imagination is the consciousness associated with the activity of the overflow areas, as these dissociate and recombine elements of past experiences. The term is also applied to the consciousness associated with the activity of the intermediate areas, as the elements of past experiences, dissociated and recombined to a certain extent in the overflow areas, are still further associated with other elements in the building of more complex structures of thought. Children and persons of undeveloped mentality are often unable to recognize the difference between the images due to the recombination of the dissociated elements of past experiences and the memories of the experiences themselves. The “lies” for which children are punished are often these images so produced, and repeated by the child in good faith as being actual experiences. The increasing development of the overflow areas and the development of the posterior intermediate area lead to the power of recognition of the absurdities of the imagined experiences, and the power of realizing the differences between the imagined experience and the actual one. Instinct—The faculty of performing certain complex acts without training, experience, or anticipation of the results of the act. Instinctive acts are performed under the control of neuron systems which are, because of hereditary structural relationships, adapted to carrying the impulses from certain sensations to certain motor neurons. The instincts are merely more complex reflex actions, and may be modified, inhibited or superseded by habits. Instinctive acts are capable of becoming fixed by repetition or of being eliminated by the frequent occurrences of habitual acts of different or antagonistic characteristics. Intellect, Intelligence—These terms are used in slightly different senses by different authors. The older idea of the classification of the mental faculties into “intellect, emotions and will power” indicates the manner in which the terms have been employed. Intellect is sometimes limited to the power of perceiving relationships between things which have no personal bearing, while intelligence is sometimes used in the broader sense of the ability to perceive, especially to perceive clearly. Both words display a number of delicate nuances in the literature of psychology. The physiological interpretation of the term depends upon its use; intellect as it is used in the sense of the power to comprehend clearly the relation of things apart from their personal bearing refers to the perfection of development of the posterior intermediate areas; intelligence, in the sense of the power to understand clearly the factors of environment, depends upon the perfection of the development of the overflow areas. The terms are usually employed in such a manner as to eliminate the consciousness associated with the activity of the ganglionar centers and of the motor areas from their meanings. Interest—The quality of consciousness associated with those sensations or actions which have an emotional coloring; things as they are perceived or actions as they are performed which have a personal bearing. Physiologically, the consciousness associated with the activity of the primary or the overflow areas together with the activity of the anterior association area. Personal interest, or selfish interest, is associated with the activity of the anterior intermediate area only; impersonal, or altruistic, or scholastic, or academic interest is based upon the activity of the posterior intermediate area also. The sense of a voluntary compelling of interest is due to the activity of the posterior or the anterior intermediate areas as impulses are sent to the motor areas; by means of this action the muscles are slightly contracted, the blood pressure raised, the liminal value of all cortical neurons is lowered, and thus the transmission of impulses form one area of the cortex to another is facilitated. The activity of the motor neurons causes the consciousness of volitional effort. (See also Attention and Choice.) Introspection—The process of attending to one’s own mental processes and feelings. Physiologically, the consciousness associated with the activity of the anterior intermediate areas, together with related activity of the posterior intermediate areas, but without any marked activity of the sensory areas, either primary or overflow. Invention—The act or power of recombining the elements of past experiences into new complexes which may or may not affect the activity of the motor areas. The term is usually employed in the sense of the formation of new complexes which are useful, and the recognition of the usefulness of an invention depends upon the activity of the posterior intermediate area. The remarkable inventiveness of certain insane persons, by whom the most intricate and absurd machines are devised and manufactured, depends upon the increased activity of the overflow areas in the recombining of elements, without the coordinating activity of the intermediate areas, by which the value or the worthlessness of the devices could be determined. Joy—The sensations caused by the recognition of great good, either to the individual or to the race. Joy differs from pleasure in that repetition is not an essential factor in joy. Physiologically, joy is the consciousness associated with the activity of the neurons, chiefly of the intermediate areas, in which the elements of past experiences have been recombined so as to bring about such a new grouping of these elements as to lead to motor activities which are of great good to the race in the future. The non-physical factor in joy is shown in the joy which may be associated with great sacrifice, and with the most urgent suffering. The motor factor in joy is not essential, since joy may be associated with impending good, from which the individual is debarred; but his joy lies in the fact that he is identified in consciousness with the other members of his race. Judgment—The statement of a decision or the performance of an act resulting from reasoning. Physiologically, judgment is the consciousness associated with the activity of the motor or language areas caused by the activity of the intermediate areas, especially the posterior intermediate area. Judgments are proper and just in the measure in which (a) impulses from the overflow areas are permitted to affect the activity of the intermediate area, and (b) impulses from the anterior intermediate area and the ganglionar centers are not permitted to affect the activity of the posterior intermediate area. Thus, judgments are not properly modified by personal, or emotional, or instinctive factors. Language—The act or power of expressing thought by means of the voice, the movements of the hands in writing, or the movements of the body in gestures. Physiologically, language is a function of certain neuron systems by means of which the dissociated factors of past experiences may serve as efficient stimuli for dissociated motor experiences. The transmission of dissociated sensory elements into dissociated motor elements without the formation of the complexes of actual experiences facilitates the activities of the intermediate areas in much the same way as the establishment of habitual reactions facilitates the activity of the cortical areas. The stimulation of the motor areas causes the movements of the body, with the formation of gesticulations, vocal or written language, or the use of the various symbols, and thus the different individuals of any family or race are enabled to share their experiences, and also the judgments, etc., based upon the dissociations, recombinations and coordinations of these experiences. Mania—A symptom complex characterized by several phenomena; the excessive activity of the smaller neurons of the motor cortex is associated with great restlessness of the smaller muscle groups of the body and an increased tension of the larger muscle groups; the body movements are modified by these reactions; the liminal value of the cortical neurons is decreased abnormally, and the inhibitions appear to be decreased, though this is not subject to proof; the consciousness is that associated with increased activity of the cortical neurons, and is that of well being, a rapid flow of pleasurable ideas, and much joy in living. Melancholia (literally, “black bile,” in reference to the supposed place of the liver in etiology)—A symptom complex characterized by several phenomena; the partial paralysis of the larger pyramidal cells of the cortex is associated with a partial paralysis of the larger muscles of the body; the body posture is characterized by this weakness of the large muscles; the liminal value of the cortical neurons is abnormally increased throughout, so that stimuli which are efficient in arousing motor reaction under normal conditions fail to arouse any reaction in the melancholiac person; the consciousness is that associated with the activity of the starved, half-paralyzed and inefficient neurons of the cortex. Memory—The reproduction in consciousness of past mental states. The physiological basis of memory lies in the fact that the stimulation of any neuron or neuron system lowers its liminal value, and thus renders it more susceptible to subsequent stimulation. Thus, those neurons or neuron systems affected by any experience are easily stimulated by the recurrence of the same or similar circumstances afterward. The memories are to the neurons of the stratum zonale what the habits are to the nerve centers in general. Memories are stored in the neurons of the overflow areas chiefly, if not entirely. Memories of motor experiences are stored in the motor overflow. The motor overflow may be stimulated by the other areas of the cortex, and the effect of this stimulation may affect the future reactions of the motor overflow cells, and thus the cells of the primary motor area. Thus, determinations are to the primary motor area what the memories are to the primary sensory areas, except for the reversal of the time relationships. A determination is, so to speak, a memory made before-hand. Memories which are not present in consciousness are not actually existent anywhere, but the physiological condition of certain neurons is such that they may be stimulated easily. The variations in the physiological conditions of the neurons or neuron systems concerned is the only manner in which memories can be supposed to be “stored.” The consciousness of memories is the consciousness associated with the activity of the overflow areas. Mind (from an Anglo-Saxon word meaning originally either love, or memory, or a vote)—The sum of the conscious states; as distinguished from intelligence, which is usually limited to the mental faculties, exclusive of the emotions or the volitions. The term originally is a good one, with exact meaning, but certain later authors have applied it to those reactions which appear to indicate any choice, or the power of making adequate reply to environmental changes; the word is even applied to the factors which determine the combinations of atoms or the actions of gravity or magnetism. In its original sense mind is, physiologically, the consciousness associated with the sum of the activities of the cerebral cortex. Neurasthenia (literally, nerve weakness)—A disease of the nervous system, in which the nerve cells display excessive irritability, and at the same time excessive liability to fatigue. The picture of neuron metabolism is like a very much exaggerated fatigue. The abnormal states of consciousness are due to the abnormal neuron activity, and these affect the body in various ways. The lowered liminal value of the cortical neurons leads to excessive activity of the motor cortex, and thus to overwork. Thus, it appears that overwork may be an early symptom of neurasthenia, rather than its cause, though the overwork is often the real cause of the disease, and is certainly a very efficient factor in perpetuating the condition. Recovery must depend primarily upon the removal of all irritating conditions, the establishment of normal blood flowing freely under normal pressure, and such educational methods as may be indicated in the individual case. Orientation (literally, a turning)—The act of relating one’s self to one’s environment; the sense of making adequate reply to environmental variations and thus of being properly placed in the midst of things. Disorders of orientation may result from the fact that adequate reply to environmental demands is impossible, or to an abnormal condition of certain neuron systems concerned in controlling the motor actions, or in affecting consciousness. Physiologically, the act of orientation depends upon the activity of the neuron systems relating the sensory to the motor areas. The consciousness of being properly orientated depends upon the normal activity of these neuron systems, plus the normal activity of the intermediate areas, by means of which the significance of the environmental variations and the significance of the replies made by the individual are perceived. Pain—The uncomfortable sensation which results from the injury of the body, either from conditions within itself, as in disease, or from external agencies, as by pricking, etc. The sense of pain from environmental losses, as in the loss of friends, disappointments, etc., may be included in this sense, and the pain in such cases is referred to the body itself. The cortical localization of pain is not known, though there is some evidence in favor of an area for the appreciation of pain in the post-central gyrus and the adjacent cortex. Perception (literally, seeing through)—The act or power of associating sensations with other sensations and memories, with an appreciation of the significance of the thing perceived. Physiologically, perception is the consciousness associated with the activities of the overflow areas. Phobia—A fear or horror, usually found in neurasthenic or psychasthenic patients, usually associated with certain objects, which are characteristic of the patient, but are not alike for different patients. Phobias are probably remnants of racial experiences and they recur in force under abnormal conditions which lower the liminal value of the neuron systems concerned in the expressions of fear and horror to such a degree that the slightest stimulation of any sensory organ is sufficient to initiate the whole reaction. The pulse, respiratory and blood pressure changes, the contraction of the pilo-motors, the trembling of certain muscles and the inhibition of others, all occur as if efficient causes of fear were actually present. Efforts at self-control only increase the somatic phenomena, and thus increase the feeling of fear. The physiological basis of the phobias is found in the presence of some abnormal condition which greatly lowers the liminal value of certain neuron systems of the ganglionar centers. Recovery must depend upon the removal of the abnormal conditions underlying this irritation, and upon the establishment of good circulation of good blood through the cortex as well as the ganglia. The liminal value of the cortical neurons, especially those of the posterior intermediate and the overflow areas, must be lowered by educational methods. Pleasure—The sensation due to occurrences found beneficial either to the individual or his race, during the history of the race. Physiologically, the consciousness associated with the activities of the cortical areas which have often recurred in the history of the race, and which are apt to recur again. It is the fact of the recurrence which gives the sensation of pleasure in consciousness, and not the pleasure which causes the recurrence. Pleasure of the most intense sort may be associated with the most intense pain, and the fact of impending injury or death is not always sufficient to inhibit pleasure; but the fact that certain circumstances have constantly and invariably recurred during racial history is the chief factor in pleasure. Psychasthenia—A form of neurasthenia in which the neurons of the cortex are most seriously affected. The patient who suffers in this way is apt to find himself unable to study, to think, or to remember with his accustomed ease, and the least endeavor to perform his ordinary mental tasks is almost immediately followed by overpowering fatigue. The lowered liminal value of the cortical neurons in psychasthenia may cause very vivid imaginative processes, and many brilliant successes in literature have been based upon slightly abnormal conditions affecting the cortical neurons in this way. No right judgments can be based upon abnormal cortical activity. Recovery must depend upon the establishment of normal nutritive and circulatory conditions of the body, rest for the affected neurons, and increased activity of any neuron systems which may have been left undeveloped by the personal habits of the patient. The removal of poisons, either stimulants or those of autogenic origin, from the blood is of first importance in such cases. Reasoning—The act or power of associating ideas in such a manner as to result in a judgment. Physiologically, reasoning is the process of the coordination of the nerve impulses arising from the activity of the primary and overflow areas by neurons of the intermediate areas. The inhibitory impulses are concerned in delaying the stimulation of the ultimate reaction until opportunity is permitted for many impulses from many overflow areas to reach the intermediate area. These streams of nerve impulses finally are coordinated in such a manner that nerve impulses are sent to the speech centers, and the decision is voiced, or written, or expressed in other ways; or to the primary motor area, when the decision is followed by appropriate action; or to the motor overflow area, in which case the decision is saved until future circumstances permit the stimulation of the neurons affected, and the reason decided upon is performed. The series of neuronic events just mentioned may occur without affecting consciousness, and the motor reactions occur under such circumstances as if they were instinctive and not judged. The term “reasoning” is usually limited to those processes which occur consciously, but there is no essential difference in the methods by which the ultimate reaction is determined, whether consciousness is associated with the neuronic activity or not. Consciousness does not in any way control reasoning, but is usually associated with the activity of the intermediate areas, especially when many nerve impulses are being coordinated--that is, when the matter is of importance. Recognition—The act or power of knowing again, of perceiving the identity of any experience or memory with other experiences or memories. Physiologically, recognition is based upon the simultaneous or consecutive activity of different neuron groups, their comparison, and the fact that the impulses are identical. Sensations may be compared with memories, memories with other memories, and the complexes produced by the recombination of the dissociated elements of pat experiences may be compared with memories or with sensations, and recognition may follow. Self—The sum of personality, the sum of the activities of the neurons of the anterior intermediate area, as these are affected, and have been affected, by sensory impulses from the body itself, from its entire environment, and from the intermediate and overflow areas. The term should be limited to the consciousness of body, and should not be applied to the body apart from the effect in consciousness. The disease which causes conscious pain or discomfort is a part of the self; the disease which bides its time in darkness is not a part of one’s self. The self is not diminished in the loss of an arm, save as this loss diminishes power and the consciousness of power. The person who loses his limbs and who retains his consciousness of power, by means of employing his other members with greater facility, has lost nothing of himself; but the other person whose physical weaknesses are associated with a loss of conscious power has lost part of himself. Sensation—A feeling, the effect upon the mind of something “sent” in from the external world. Physiologically, the term is used in two senses: (a) the effect of external variations upon the sensory neurons of the first order, (b) the consciousness associated with the activity of the primary sense areas of the cortex. Commonly, the term is also applied to the consciousness associated with the activity of the overflow areas, as in the less complex coordinations. Thus, it is said that we see that anything is of a certain size or distance. The activity of the visual overflow area is concerned in the appreciation of size, distance, solidity, etc, and the primary sensations of vision are only of a flat colored surface The activity of the auditory area is associated with the consciousness of sound, and the activity of the auditory overflow is concerned in the hearing of words in their significance, etc. The activity of the other primary areas is associated with the consciousness of the specific function of those areas. Shame—The sense of having appeared, or spoken, or acted in an unbecoming manner. Physiologically, the consciousness caused by the activity of the neurons of the anterior intermediate area as these are stimulated by impulses form the primary and overflow motor areas, together with inhibitory impulses form other cortical areas. Thus, the constant sense of “wishing I had not done it,” which is so essential an element of shame. Soul—A term which has been used in many different senses. It is usually employed to signify the mind, or the intelligence, or the will power, or the sum of the emotions, or the transcendental part of personality, which dwells apart from neuronic activity, and which is not very intimately associated with the body. The term has fallen into disuse because it has been used in so many meanings that its value is lost, unless care is taken to explain in which significance it is being employed. Space, Idea of—The idea of space is the consciousness associated with the activity of the areas intermediate between the visual, auditory, somesthetic, and perhaps the muscle sense overflows. Thus, the consciousness associated with the activities of each of these areas is concerned in the appreciation of space as an abstract idea. Stream of Consciousness—The constant series of varying states of activity of the neurons of external layers of the cerebral cortex, and of their effects. The term “stream” refers to the fact that this series of physiological variations is never, under normal conditions, interrupted. Sub-consciousness—A term used in different senses by different authors. It has no place in the physiology of consciousness, but the varying meanings which are attributed to the term may be defined in physiological terms. (See Chapter XIV.) Subjective Mind—A term which has been variously employed by different authors as describing certain physiological activities not associated with consciousness. Its significance varies from the forces which govern the universe and control the evolution of living creatures down to the neuron activities concerned in reflex actions and in instincts, and to the phenomena of the lives of unicellular organisms. The term has no logical place in physiology or psychology. Thought— (a) The act of considering; (b) the ideas subject to consideration, usually without personal bearing. Physiologically, thought is the consciousness associated with the activity of the intermediate areas—the posterior, if the thought is impersonal—in which the impulses from the sensory overflows and from other cortical areas are sent to and from various neuron groups. The inhibitory impulses form an important part of the series of neuron activities concerned in thought. Thought differs from reason in the fact that the decision may be greatly delayed in thought, while in reason the whole series of neuronic action tends to the decision. The complexity of thought and the justice and wisdom of the resulting volitions or determinations depend upon the number of the sources of the original stimuli. The vividness of thought and the force of the resulting volitions and determinations depend upon the vividness of the memories and sensory impulses which enter into the series of reactions. As in all coordinations, the vividness and the efficiency of any series of reactions depend primarily upon the physiological conditions of the neurons concerned in the reactions. Transcendental Self, or Ego—A personality apart from neuronic activity, concerning whose existence there is no physiological evidence, but whose non-existence is unthinkable to the normal mind. Volition—The act or process of choosing or determining; the will. Physiologically, volition is the consciousness associated with the activity of the motor areas, as these are stimulated by the activity of other parts of the cortex. Will—(a) The act or power of choosing, the expression of a determination; (b) that which is chosen or determined upon. Physiologically, will is the consciousness associated with the activity of the primary or overflow motor area of the cortex. Will is not the exertion of any psychic power; it is the consciousness produced by the activity of the motor areas. Since this consciousness has invariably been followed by the contraction of muscles, the effect of actual volition is produced; in other words, the fallacy, “post hoc, propter hoc,” has hidden the real relationship of cause and effect. (See also Choice and Determination). |